Lost & Found Beneath the Waves

The ocean hides many secrets, and among its most haunting are the remains of ancient civilizations now lost to its depths. With new technology, including sonar mapping, underwater drones, and satellite imagery, now more than ever before researchers are uncovering forgotten chapters of human history hidden on the ocean floor.

By Worthy McCargo

If you love a good mystery, especially of the non-fiction variety, look no further than world’s oceans. I certainly fall into that category and have long been amazed by the fact that the vast majority of the ocean floor has never been explored. It’s fun to consider the undiscovered when looking out over the ocean’s vast expanse. That’s particularly true when you stop and consider the lost remnants of long-forgotten civilizations hidden beneath the waves.

It’s the stuff of legend. Tales of the lost city of Atlantis have been around for centuries, fueling myth, speculation, exploration and imagination. Faux underwater ruins have been prominently displayed in public aquariums, amusement parks and resorts. In many ways, we are haunted by the ghostly remains of ages long past residing on the ocean floor.

More fascinating still, are ongoing the real-world discoveries unfolding as we continue to explore the oceans and map their terrain. Underwater ruins are every bit as much a part of science as they are imagination.  

One of the most intriguing oceanic discoveries in recent years came off the coast of India, where sonar scans near the city of Dwarka revealed symmetrical, man-made structures submerged under 120 feet of water. Further exploration identified foundations, walls, and artifacts that suggest a city once stood where the Arabian Sea now laps against the shore. Radiocarbon dating placed some of the structures as far back as 4,000 years ago.

DISCOVERING A MYSTERY

That discovery was arguably topped in the Mediterranean, near the Greek island of Pavlopetri, where researchers found the oldest known underwater city, dating back over 5,000 years. Streets, courtyards, tombs, and even plumbing systems were revealed in startling detail. The city was likely lost to a series of earthquakes and tsunamis.

Located off the southern coast of Laconia, in the Peloponnese region of Greece, Pavlopetri is now known as one of the world’s oldest known submerged cities, back to the early Bronze Age, around 2800 BCE.

Unlike many underwater archaeological finds, Pavlopetri is not a myth or legend—it is a scientifically verified prehistoric city, complete with an urban layout that includes streets, buildings, courtyards, tombs, and even a drainage system. The preservation of its layout and artifacts has made it a time capsule into early human civilization, and it remains one of the most important underwater archaeological sites ever found.

Pavlopetri was first identified in 1967 by oceanographer Nicholas Flemming of the University of Southampton. Flemming was conducting a coastal survey when he noticed strange rock formations beneath the shallow waters. Upon closer examination, he realized these formations were not natural—they were the remains of ancient buildings, laid out in a clear city grid.

But it wasn’t until 2009 that the true significance of the site came to light. A joint Greek-British expedition, led by the University of Nottingham in collaboration with the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities, launched the Pavlopetri Underwater Archaeology Project. Using advanced sonar scanning, 3D mapping, and robotic submersibles, the team revealed the full extent of the city, spanning nearly 20 acres across the seabed.

A COMPLEX SOCIETY

This cutting-edge survey made Pavlopetri the first underwater city to be digitally mapped in full three dimensions, allowing researchers to “walk” through the city virtually. It brought global attention to a place that had, for thousands of years, remained untouched and remarkably well-preserved beneath the waves.

What makes Pavlopetri so extraordinary is both its age and the sophistication of its design. The city featured stone-built roads, a central square, two-story buildings, water management systems, and clear evidence of social organization and trade.

Archaeologists found artifacts such as ceramics, storage vessels, loom weights, and cooking utensils, many of which show stylistic connections to the Minoan civilization of Crete and the Mycenaean Greeks. These findings suggest Pavlopetri was part of a network of early Aegean maritime trade that connected regions across the Mediterranean, long before classical Greek civilization.

There is also evidence that its residents engaged in textile production, fishing, animal husbandry, and metallurgy. Tombs discovered at the site indicate that the city had ritual and religious practices, while the orderly layout suggests a society with planning and governance structures.

OLD STORY NEW THREATS

The submergence of Pavlopetri is believed to be the result of a combination of tectonic activity and rising sea levels. The region lies on a fault line, and a series of earthquakes over centuries likely caused sections of land to sink.

According to geological studies, the city was gradually submerged by around 1000 BCE, and unlike cities lost to sudden disasters, it appears Pavlopetri was slowly abandoned as the sea crept in. This gentle submergence preserved the site in a way that sudden destruction would not have, protecting the layout and leaving behind an almost untouched urban footprint

Despite its importance, Pavlopetri is under threat. Its shallow location makes it vulnerable to coastal development, tourism, looting, and boat anchors. The delicate ruins are also at risk from erosion and pollution.

The Greek government, working with UNESCO and archaeological institutions, has taken steps to protect the site. In recent years, the area has been designated a protected cultural heritage zone. However, ongoing funding and awareness are crucial to ensuring that Pavlopetri remains undisturbed for future generations of researchers and explorers.

Pavlopetri challenges assumptions about how advanced Bronze Age civilizations were and how they interacted across seas and cultures. The discovery also underscores the importance of marine archaeology, a field that is still in its infancy compared to land-based archaeology. With 70% of the planet covered by water—and with many ancient societies having built near coastlines—there are likely countless other settlements and artifacts still waiting to be discovered.

PLACES PAST

If you’re interested in underwater ruins, either to visit or to study, here’s a list of some the world’s most prominent sites:

Dwarka, India (Gulf of Khambhat, off the coast of Gujarat 9,000+ years): Believed by some to be the legendary city of Dwarka mentioned in Hindu scriptures as the kingdom of Lord Krishna. Discovered in the early 2000s, the ruins feature geometric stone structures, streets, and artifacts. While debate continues over their true age and origin, if validated, it would rewrite much of early Indian and human history.

Heracleion, Egypt (Mediterranean Sea near the Nile Deltam 2,300 years): Once a thriving port city at the mouth of the Nile, Heracleion was Egypt’s gateway to the Mediterranean before Alexandria. Submerged around the 2nd century BC, it was rediscovered in 2,000 with an extraordinary array of temples, statues, shipwrecks, and inscriptions revealing life during the Late Period of ancient Egypt.

Port Royal, Jamaica (Kingston Harbour,17th century): Though not from the “ancient world,” Port Royal is often included due to its sudden submergence during an earthquake in 1692. Known as the “wickedest city on Earth,” it was a pirate haven and a bustling Caribbean port, offering a time capsule of colonial life.

Yonaguni Monument, Japan (Off Yonaguni Island, Ryukyu Archipelag, estimated over 10,000 years) A megalithic structure discovered in 1986, featuring what appear to be terraces, ramps, steps, and pyramidal shapes. Debate rages between geologists and fringe theorists as to whether it is man-made or a natural rock formation modified by humans. If confirmed as artificial, it could represent one of the oldest human-made structures on Earth.

Baiae, Italy (Bay of Naples, 2,000 years (Roman Imperial Period) A luxurious Roman resort town favored by emperors like Nero and Caligula, Baiae was partially submerged due to volcanic and tectonic activity. The underwater ruins include villas, bathhouses, mosaics, and marble statuary, preserved in remarkable detail.

Atlit-Yam, Israel (Off the coast of Haifa 9,000 years): One of the oldest submerged Neolithic settlements, Atlit-Yam includes houses, a stone circle, wells, and human remains. It offers key insights into prehistoric Mediterranean life and was submerged by rising sea levels around 7,000 BCE.

Phanagoria, Russia (Black Sea,Taman Peninsula, partially underwater, 2,500 years): Once the capital of the Bosporan Kingdom, Phanagoria was a major Greek city. The underwater portion includes city walls, ancient ships, and structures sunk due to earthquakes. It plays a vital role in understanding Greek colonization of the Black Sea region.

Olous, Greece (Elounda Bay, Crete 2,500 years): A sunken ancient Greek city visible just beneath the surface, Olous traded with Knossos and other Minoan centers. Submersion likely resulted from seismic activity. Stone walls and streets are still visible to snorkelers and divers today.

AND PRESENT

As rising sea levels continue to threaten coastal areas today, places like Pavlopetri and those listed above also serve as haunting lessons from history: civilizations are not immune to the forces of nature, and the sea, while a giver of life and trade, can also reclaim what was once built.

As technology advances and the oceans yield more of their secrets, Pavlopetri remains a beacon, reminding us that history does not end at the shoreline. Beneath the waves, the stories of our ancestors are still being told.

Rising sea levels, natural disasters, and tectonic activity have long shaped the coastlines—and the fates—of early human settlements. Many ancient cities were built close to water for trade, transport, and resources, making them vulnerable to the shifting nature of our planet. Some, like Doggerland  (a now-submerged landmass between Britain and mainland Europe), were entirely erased as the Ice Age ended and sea levels rose rapidly.

These underwater discoveries are reminders of human adaptability, and in a modern context, the consequences of climate and environmental change. As modern cities face the threat of rising seas, these sunken stories from the past offer a cautionary glimpse into the future.

Worthy McCargo is an independent writer, actor, PR specialist and part-time bouncer based in Freeport, Long Island, NY. This is his third WaterShapes article.

RESOURCES

There’s an ocean of diverse and reliable resources available describing these amazing submerged and partially-submerged ancient sites. For the adventurous and curious alike, these sites, and others, offer new opportunities for exploration in the our most distant past.

Books

• “Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice” – Nautical Archaeology Society
  A comprehensive manual widely used in the field of underwater archaeology.
• “Sunken Cities: Egypt’s Lost Worlds” – Franck Goddio & Aurélia Masson-Berghoff (British Museum Press)
  Documents the underwater discoveries of Heracleion and Canopus with stunning visuals and historical analysis.
• “The Lost City of Dvārakā” – S.R. Rao
  Written by the archaeologist who led the marine excavations off the coast of Gujarat, proposing the ruins as ancient Dwarka.
• “The Atlantis Encyclopedia” – Frank Joseph
  Covers global underwater ruins with detailed entries, though some interpretations are speculative.
• “The Archaeology of Underwater Caves” – Peter B. Campbell
  Includes discussion of prehistoric submerged sites like Atlit-Yam.

Academic Journals & Articles

• Goddio, Franck (2007). “Heracleion–Thonis and Canopus: Two Ancient Egyptian Cities Rediscovered.” Published in the IEASM (European Institute for Underwater Archaeology). Flemming, N.C. et al. (2006). “Submerged Landscapes and Sea Level Change.” Antiquity, Vol. 80. Covers Pavlopetri and other submerged sites from a geological and archaeological standpoint.
• Galili, Ehud et al. (2000). “Atlit-Yam: A Submerged Prehistoric Site off the Carmel Coast, Israel.” Journal of Field Archaeology.
  Primary source study of the Neolithic ruins under the Mediterranean Sea.
• Sato, Masaaki (1997). “The Yonaguni Underwater Structure: Natural or Manmade?” Marine Geology Reports. Debates geological formation versus human activity at Yonaguni.

Online Resources and Databases

• UNESCO Underwater Cultural Heritage Database
  https://www.unesco.org/en/underwater-cultural-heritage
  Global registry of submerged archaeological sites with status and protection efforts.
• European Institute for Underwater Archaeology (IEASM)
  https://www.franckgoddio.org/
  Official site of Franck Goddio, with high-resolution maps and scholarly findings on Heracleion and Canopus.
• National Geographic: Lost Cities Underwater
  https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/lost-cities-found-underwater
  Profiles Heracleion, Baiae, and more, with detailed narratives and photography.
• Greek Ministry of Culture – Pavlopetri Project
  https://www.culture.gov.gr/
  (Search “Pavlopetri” for project updates and conservation information.)
• Israel Antiquities Authority – Atlit-Yam
  https://www.antiquities.org.il/
  (Search for “Atlit-Yam” in their database for excavation reports and publications.)

Opening image by Holly Lewis | Shutterstock; middle photo by Sergey Kamshylin | Shutterstock; bottom image by Matthew Clemente | Shutterstock.